Editorial Note
This article was first published with a focus on religious pedagogy in the Wissenschaftlich-Religionspädagogischen Lexikon (WiReLex): Heger, Johannes, Art. Himmel, in: WiReLex, 2021 (https://doi.org/10.23768/wirelex.Himmel.200868).
Links to other media and further information regarding this topic can be found in the German version of this article.
1. Toward a Responsible Discourse on “Heaven”
In common parlance (for example, “For heaven’s sake!”), in (pop) cultural productions (for example, “Tears in Heaven” [Eric Clapton]), in children’s books (for example, “Annas Himmel” [Anna’s Heaven]), and in the spiritual discipline of prayer (for example, “Our Father in heaven”), “heaven” has a well-established place. On the one hand, this signifier refers to the physical firmament (“sky”). On the other hand, this “primordial word of human language”1Rahner, Johanna, Einführung in die christliche Eschatologie, Freiburg 2016, 322, translation by Jacob N. Cerone. German: “Urwort menschlicher Sprache.” condenses a multitude of religious ideas and concepts of a hoped-for afterlife (“heaven”) across religions and cultures. The plurality of theological concepts outlined below for the Judeo-Christian faith tradition and the diversity of interpretations2Cf. Heger, Johannes, Art. Himmel, in: WiReLex, 2021 (https://bibelwissenschaft.de/stichwort/200868/), accessed on 17.03.2026, §2. revealed by empirical studies on children’s and adolescent ideas of heaven reinforce each other.
The root cause of this pluralistic uncertainty about heaven can be found in a constitutive signature of the doctrine of the “last things” (cf. art. Eschatology):3Cf. Heger, Johannes, Art. Eschatologie, in: WiReLex, 2024 (https://bibelwissenschaft.de/stichwort/100164/), accessed on 17.03.2026, §4.2. since the afterlife and the transcendence of God cannot be grasped (empirically), specialized scholarly and general human reflection on eschatological topics and questions – such as in the case of heaven – remain dependent on (linguistic) images or figurative language,4Cf. Ratzinger, Joseph, Eschatologie – Tod und ewiges Leben, Regensburg 2017, 185. which transcend “the limits […] of our power of expression.”5Imbach, Josef, Himmelsglaube und Höllenangst. Was wissen wir vom Leben nach dem Tod?, München 1987, 55, translation by Jacob N. Cerone. German: “die Grenzen […] unseres Ausdrucksvermögens.”
To prevent the diversity of approaches to heaven from becoming arbitrary, to deconstruct misconceptions about the Christian understanding of heaven, and to counter attempts at exploitation (e.g., by sects),6Cf. Bernheim, Pierre A./Stavrides, Guy, Das Paradies – Verheißungen vom glücklichen Jenseits, Düsseldorf 2004, 196–213. it is necessary to reconnect with the core systematic points of Christian theological teachings about heaven.
2. Heaven in the Bible
First, this connection leads to the necessity of investigating the biblical testimonies, both in terms of (theological) history and systematics.
2.1. Old Testament
In the Old Testament, “heaven” is understood in the context of the three-tiered ancient Near Eastern view of the world.7Cf. Lang, Bernhard/McDannell, Colleen, Der Himmel. Eine Kulturgeschichte des ewigen Lebens, Frankfurt a. M. 1990, 17–24. As a cosmological phenomenon, it is primarily the realm of birds (Deut 4:17) and the horizon in which meteorological events took place (Jer 10:13). The merism “heaven and earth” therefore forms a cipher for the entire cosmos (Gen 1:1; see also in the NT: Matt 5:18; Mark 13:31; Eph 1:10). Iconographically, heaven is conceived in opposition to hell (Ps 139). This localization, as well as the temporal-spatial ordering (Gen 1:3–5) and life-giving (sun, rain) moment (see Isa 45:8; Hos 2:23–25) led to a religious semantization of heaven across religions.8Cf. Fetz, Reto L., Der Himmel als Symbol. Die moderne Umdeutung eines mythischen Raumes, in: Jahrbuch für Biblische Theologie 20 (2005), 59–82. Unlike in the ancient Near East, however, heaven in Israel is not deified but refers to the creator (Gen 1:6–9; cf. art. Creation).
Only after the destruction of the temple does the theological-religious coding of heaven – primarily as God’s sphere (Deut 26:15; Ps 11:4; 2 Chr 30:27; Gen 24:3), from which he looks down upon the earth (Deut 26:15) and from which he descends (Gen 19:24; 35:13) – arise. Furthermore, the attributive construction “God of heaven” (Deut 10:14; 1 Kgs 8:27) and of passages depicting heaven as a symbol of God (1 Macc 4:10; Dan 4:24) can be found. The “heavenly throne” (Isa 6:1–5) and the mention of a heavenly court (1 Kgs 22:19; Job 1:6) are additional symbols of God’s universal reign.9Cf. Vorgrimler, Herbert, Geschichte des Paradieses und des Himmels. Mit einem Exkurs über Utopie, München/Paderborn 2008, 83–86.
Apart from the rapture of Elijah (2 Kgs 2:1, 3; Sir 48:9–12), heaven remains largely reserved for YHWH. The idea of an afterlife with God developed gradually in Israel (Wis 3:1–9; Ps 49:16) – eventually leading to the idea of the resurrection of all the dead, which goes hand in hand with the duality of heaven and hell (2 Macc 6:26; Dan 12:1–3).10Cf. Bieberstein, Klaus, Jenseits der Todesschwelle. Die Entstehung der Auferweckungshoffnungen in der alttestamentlich-frühjüdischen Literatur, in: Berlejung, Angelika/Janowski, Bernd (Eds.), Tod und Jenseits im Alten Israel und in seiner Umwelt. Theologische, religionsgeschichtliche, archäologische und ikonographische Aspekte, Tübingen 2009, 423–446; Vorgrimler, Geschichte, 2008, 86–91. This is mainly due to the fact that YHWH is conveived as the God of the living who is primarily committed to justice.
2.2. New Testament
The writings of the New Testament tie in with this cosmological conception and the theological codification outlined above: heaven now consistently becomes God’s dwelling place (2 Cor 5:1; John 14:2–7; Matt 6:9). There, God reigns (Matt 5:34; Heb 8:1) as “Father in heaven” (Matt 5:16) – but now with Christ, who has ascended into heaven (Luke 24:50–53; cf. art. Ascension) and been exalted to his right hand (Acts 1:10–11; 3:21; Heb 12:2). This christological shift is linked to an individual eschatological payoff: whoever proves faithful to God will find their “just reward” (Matt 5:12) – understood as a dwelling place in heaven (2 Cor 5:1; John 14:2–7) or as “eternal life” – with God or Christ (Rev 2:7, 10–11; Mark 10:17 parr; Rom 6:23; John 14:3). Heaven is thus also associated with the hope of seeing God (Matt 5:8; 1 Cor 13:12; 1 John 3:2; Rev 22:4). For those who believe in Christ, the heavenly Jerusalem is thus already here and now their mother (Eph 2:6; Col 3:1) and home (Gal 4:26; Phil 3:20), in which the fallen Satan no longer has any power (Luke 10:18). In this context, the coming of the Son of Man from heaven (John 3:13) and his revelation of secrets (Matt 13:11) can already be understood as an intertwining of heaven and earth.
This intertwining should not be confused with “secularization”: Jesus’s central cipher for interpreting heaven is the metaphor of the kingdom of God and the associated message, attested to by his deeds, that God wants his heaven to extend into this world.11Cf. Kehl, Medard, Der Himmel – Die Botschaft christlicher Hoffnung, in: Berger, Klaus et al. (eds.), Bilder des Himmels. Die Geschichte des Jenseits von der Bibel bis zur Gegenwart, Freiburg i. Br. 2006, 197–223, 199; Pemsel-Maier, Sabine, Der Traum vom ewigen Leben. Jetzt verstehe ich die letzten Dinge, Stuttgart 2010, 108–114. On the one hand, this can be inteterpreted as an ethical impulse to help build heaven, and on the other hand as an eschatological promise that takes shape above all in Jesus’s realistic parables: for example, everyone without exception is invited to the heavenly (feast) meal (Luke 13:29 parr; Luke 14:15; Mark 8:11) or the wedding feast (Matt 22:1–2; Rev 19:7–9). And the image of paradise (Luke 23:43) – in a clear allusion to the description of the garden of Eden (Gen 2:8–25) – focuses on the peaceful connection between God, humanity, and the (natural) world.
3. Systematic Spotlights on Heaven
Among other things, these biblical references formed the basis for various contextually influenced systematic theological concepts of heaven, for the church’s doctrine of heaven, and for alternative visions of heaven throughout theological and cultural history,12Cf. Lang/McDannell, Himmel, 1990, 75–407. together with non-biblical texts from early Judaism, apocryphal texts to the New Testament, and elements from poetry, mysticism, and visionary literature.13Cf. Vorgrimler, Geschichte, esp. 91–101; 106–116; 177–214. Without following any of these lines of development in detail, the following systematic theological emphases of a current Minima Theologia of heaven can be identified.14Cf. Vorgrimler, Geschichte, 166f.
3.1. Heaven as an Eschatological-Dynamic Encounter
Due to the physical-religious ambiguity (“sky”/“heaven”; German: “Himmel”) and the associated hermeneutical difficulties, theology continues to deal with the “matter of heaven,” but mostly uses other ciphers – especially those of completion or fullness.15Cf. Miggelbrink, Ralf, Die Lebensfülle Gottes. Ein systematisch-theologischer Versuch über die biblische Rede vom Himmel, in: Jahrbuch für biblische Theologie 20 (2005), 325–356, 343–353. As this terminology already formally indicates, it is no longer concerned with a cosmological but rather a theological location. In terms of content, this completion can be understood as a manifold personal encounter or relationship event:
Theocentric in emphasis, heaven for the individual initially means “a joyful acceptance into the relationship between Jesus and his Father, the creative source of infinite love,” and the Holy Spirit.16Cf. Kehl, Medard, Eschatologie, Würzburg 1986, 289, translation by Jacob N. Cerone. German: “ein glückendes Hineingenommensein in die Beziehung Jesu zu seinem Vater, dem schöpferischen Grund unendlicher Liebe.” This image of the God-human community bound together in the bond of love can be understood as the affective-emotional side of what, culminating in medieval scholasticism,17Cf. Lang, Bernhard, Himmel und Hölle. Jenseitsglaube von der Antike bis heute, München 2009, 62–65. is still referred to today in the theoretical-intellectual image of the vision of God (visio beatifica).18Cf. Vorgrimler, Herbert, Hoffnung auf Vollendung. Aufriß der Eschatologie (QD 90), Freiburg i. Br. 1984, 166f.
The anthropocentric perspective complements this approach and prevents heaven from being misunderstood as something distant from the world and humanity: drawing on biblical images of the feast and the wedding, among others, heaven is emphasized as a “social reality” in which interpersonal encounter (communio sanctorum) – and thus also reconciliation is at stake.19Cf. Moltmann, Jürgen, Das Kommen Gottes. Christliche Eschatologie, Gütersloh 1995, 128–131. For with the Christian hope that all people will share in the heavenly community, it is not only the victims of history who receive redeeming justice. Even those who have become guilty perpetrators are given the chance to come to God’s truth.20Cf. Ansorge, Dirk, Vergebung auf Kosten der Opfer? Umrisse einer Theologie der Versöhnung, in: SaThZ 6 (2002), 36–58. These condensed explanations also suggest that heaven is not a static concept, but rather a dynamic process – a process of becoming in which people find themselves through multiple encounters with other people and with God.
3.2. Heaven as Indicative and Present Imperative
More recently, theologians do not conceive of “heaven” merely as a “metaphor for the afterlife.”21Miggelbrink, Lebensfülle, 326f., translation by Jacob N. Cerone. German: “Jenseitsmetapher.” Rather, it also draws on Jesus’s sermon on the kingdom of God and emphasizes its present dimension:22Cf. Reményi, Matthias, Auferstehung denken. Anwege, Grenzen und Modelle personaleschatologischer Theoriebildung, Freiburg i. Br. 2016, 213–219; Mühling, Markus, Grundinformation Eschatologie. Systematische Theologie aus der Perspektive der Hoffnung, Göttingen 22022, 387–393. from this perspective, heaven is the grace of God already at work in the here and now (Luke 17:21) and has been promised to us (indicative). On the one hand, this means that our world is already open to God. At the same time, it also comes with the call to act on earth according to the ethical standards of heaven (imperative). By pushing back against evil, people are helping to build the kingdom of God.23Cf. Häring, Hermann, Was bedeutet Himmel?, Zürich 1980, 38–59.
3.3. Heaven as a Symbol of God’s Enduring Transcendence
The two spotlights sketched above suggest that human reason is ultimately capable of determining what heaven is and, therefore, who and what God is. For this reason, despite all eloquence, it is essential for responsible theology not to overuse the metaphor of a religious-existential heaven. Theology therefore uses the human experience of the physical heaven – including its distance and proximity, its presence and absence – as a linguistic cipher for the enduing transcendence of God. This drive is evident, for example, where the (biblical) plurality of conceptions of heaven is not leveled for the sake of interpretation. Or where reflection on heaven in the sense of negative theology catches up with what heaven is not.24Cf. Pemsel-Maier, Traum, 116.
4. The Dialectical Structure of Hope
Against the backdrop outlined above, theological reasoning about heaven ultimately proves to be a dialectical process: heaven is grace and demand, promise and appeal, relatedness and remoteness, neither wholly present nor wholly absent,25Cf. Küng, Hans, Ewiges Leben?, München/Zürich 112011, 183–187. both well-founded hope and enduring mystery. Conceiving of heaven in this dialectical structure and tension as a “symbol of hope”26Häring, Himmel, 21. German: “Symbol der Hoffnung.” protects us, on the one hand, from seductive promises of salvation or false certainty of salvation. On the other hand, this epistemologically grounded approach provides fertile ground for a rationally attainable and thus sustainable “certainty of hope,”27Schärtl, Thomas, Eschatologie und christliche Hoffnungsgewissheit, in: Werbick, Jürgen et al. (Eds.), Glaubensgewissheit und Gewalt. Eschatologische Erkundungen in Islam und Christentum, Paderborn 2011, 153–175, 153–161. from which we can and may ask God for his heavenly salvation amid doubting faith.