Justification

“Forgiveness” is one of the terms used in systematic theology to describe God’s salvific action toward humanity. More specifically, the term “forgiveness” refers to God’s dealings with humanity as sinners, that is, with their sinfulness and sin(s). Accordingly, in systematic theology, divine forgiveness refers to the forgiveness of sin(s). A possible connection between divine forgiveness and interpersonal forgiveness is partly accepted and partly criticized in Protestant theology.

The theme of justice and righteousness, as both God’s and human justice and righteousness, plays a central role in the biblical writings and shapes the Christian understanding of justice and righteousness. While this theme was often interpreted in the past primarily in relation to the forgiveness of the individual’s sins through God’s merciful righteousness, God’s justice is today increasingly understood also as God’s justice-establishing action in history and related to the practice of justice among believers. In light of the injustices of the world, justice and righteousness remain central to ecumenical and interreligious dialogue as well.
This article is a translation from the German; the original term Gerechtigkeit like the Greek term dikaiosyne, encompasses both justice and righteousness. The translation therefore renders the term according to context, using justice where social, relational, legal, restorative, and liberative dimensions are foregrounded, and righteousness where soteriological, Pauline, christological, or justificatory dimensions are at issue. The theological interrelation between justice and righteousness is crucial for understanding the argument of this article, since the German term Gerechtigkeit holds together dimensions that English often separates: God’s saving and justifying righteousness, God’s justice-establishing action in history, and the corresponding practice of justice among human beings.

Alongside baptism, the Last Supper is the core Christian sacrament. Accordingly, it is intended to facilitate God’s presence in the world in a way determined by God. Based on the New Testament accounts of Jesus’ final meal with his disciples on the night before his crucifixion, the Last Supper is a formalized rite involving the eating of bread and the drinking of wine. With the multiplication of Christian denominations, disagreements have emerged concerning the form of the meal celebration and, above all else, the ways of interpreting the presence of Christ. These disagreements have overshadowed the common foundation in all Christian denominations – namely, that the Last Supper is a way of representing Christ.

• Ecclesiology
• Sacrament